1 mm radius of corneal curvature equals
We provide global averages and standard deviations for ocular biometryaxial length (AL), corneal radius of curvature (CR), anterior chamber depth (ACD), lens thickness (LT), white to white (WTW), and central corneal thickness (CT). Elevation information was acquired directly, and curvature information was derived from this. The most common are keratoconus screening software, simulated keratometry (Sim K; curvatures at the 3 mm zone), surface regularity index (SRI; measures central 4.5 mm, 0 = perfectly smooth surface, correlates highly with visual acuity), surface asymmetry index (SAI; difference in each ring 180 apart, 0 = perfect sphere), potential corneal acuity (PC acuity; predicted vision based on cornea alone). Statistically significant correlations between the scleral curvature and other ocular biometric parameters. Chen et al. The different keratometers, such as the Javal Schiotz and the Bausch and Lomb keratometer, were adequate to calculate the dioptric power of the cornea for intraocular lens power calculation and contact lens fitting. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. The difference in mean AL/CRC ratio across the refractive groups was significant, with myopes having higher AL/CRC ratio than emmetropes and hyperopes. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies From the equation representing the model, for every 1.00D increase in myopia, the axial length is increased by 0.24mm. Parallel light is send to the cornea, the light beams are refracted according to the correct refractive index (1.376/1.336), the slope of the surfaces, and the exact location of the refraction. WebCorneal power in dioptres (D) = 337.5/keratometry in mm, (where 337.5 is the hypothetical refractive index of the cornea). Bookshelf The Placido method analyzes only the anterior surface of the cornea, whereas the other two methods also map the posterior corneal surface and measure the corneal thickness. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Submit your case studies, clinical pearls, practice management tips, editorial, or other manuscripts. Overall the changes in axial length appear to outweigh the progressive corneal flattening with age in normal eyes; the majority of axial length elongation takes place in the first three to 6 months of life and a gradual reducing rate of growth over the next two years [7], and by three years the adult eye size is attained [8]. Thus, we have provided this studys results as reference, without including it in our global average and standard deviation calculations for ocular biometry. The linear regression equation is AL/CRC = 3.016 0.0573 SER. All three corneas measure the same apical radius of 7.80mm, 43.25 diopters; however, each has a different eccentricity which can be described as: Low eccentricity = 0.32 Medium eccentricity = 0.50 mm High eccentricity = 0.63 Stenstrom S. Investigation of the variation and correlation of the optical elements of human eyes. We report large scale ocular biometry data, drawn from representative global studies across four continents. Webthe cornea is 7-7 and 6-8 mm, respectively. Anterior corneal asphericity calculated by the tangential radius of For the axial map, r = the distance from the corneal surface to the optical (sagittal) axis along the normal. Also, Llorente et al. Validation of Orbscan II posterior corneal curvature measurement for intraocular lens power calculation. Yebra-Pimentel et al. CVK elevation maps estimate the height of corneal regions relative to some reference plane (i.e., best-fit sphere, asphere, or average corneal shape) by using the angle of reflection. The diameter of the stromal lenticule was 66.5 mm, and the corneal cap diameter was the lenticules diameter plus Theoretical Relationship Between the Anterior-Posterior Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. The model as fitted explains 47% of the variability in CRC. The Placido ring was the first instrument used to analyze the anterior surface of the cornea. Thus, physicians can understand how normal or abnormal these parameters may be for their individual patients. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. 2023 Blue River Medical, Inc. - WordPress Theme by Kadence Themes, Speak Directly With A Representative +1 (877) 707-5688, SOFT PLUG Collagen Intracanalicular Plugs, SOFT PLUG Preloaded Silicone Punctum Plugs 2pk. 2010 Dec;108:77-95. The site is secure. Studies that did not report a biometric parameter are indicated with an empty bar. The aim of this study is to determine the role of axial length-corneal radius of curvature (AL/CRC) ratio in refractive state categorization in Nigerians. As expected, an increase in AL correlated with The relation between birth size and the results of refractive error and biometry measurements in children. The correlation between AL/CRC ratio and age was not statistically significant (r = 0.002, P > 0.05). ] Validation of laser Doppler interferometric measurements in vivo of axial eye length and thickness of fundus layers in chicks. The result of this study also shows that there was a statistically significant inverse correlation between AL/CRC ratio and SER (r = 0.77, P < 0.0001). Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the measured variables for all subjects. Disclaimer. The blurred mire was cleared by adjusting the focusing knob. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Fotedar R, Wang JJ, Burlutsky G, Morgan IG, Rose K, Wong TY, et al. and transmitted securely. Epub 2016 Sep 28. This is done, because such a map provides K-values (EKR), that can be used in IOL-formulas that correct for 1.3375. Corneal diameter and associated parameters in Chinese children: the Shandong Children Eye Study. Investigative Ophthalmol Vis Sci. This was in line with the claim of Tien et al. The linear regression model is represented by: AL = 39.23 1.976 CRC. Saw SM, Tong L, Chia KS, et al. Therefore after refractive corneal surgery, the calculation of the corneal refractive power based only on the anterior surface can no longer be used, as the ratio between the anterior and the posterior radius of the cornea changes considerably. Global metrics on ocular biometry: representative averages and OphthalmologyWeb wants to hear from you. Correlation of axial length and corneal radius of curvature with 95% confidence interval of the regression line. Richter GM, Wang M, Jiang X, Wu S, Wang D, Torres M, Chinese American Eye Study Group, et al. Variacion de la ratio longitud axial/radio corneal (LA/RC) con el estado refractivo ocular. 2018 Mar;66(3):360-366. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_850_17. Although we observed heterogeneity between eye biometry values, this does not seem to be country dependent. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. Table B (available in the online version of this article) demonstrates the study of the impact of variations in the posterior radius of curvature between 6.2 and 6.7 mm. Ojaimi E, Rose KA, Morgan IG, et al. Once the exact position was obtained the lock knob was tightened so that the instrument does not rotate out of setting. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted 5Cfdo6Yf,H(a&Bi+)`QoESlN:T*Cfr^}|q\h*e.4!N_} FT Lt2g2{{]2Y#',Vs}V yycMa2gw:oWO#{ 0H|f~V93T \`G4b'b8jR)` .+ A topographer analyzes only the front surface of the cornea. The site is secure. The axial length of the eye, the radius of the anterior corneal surface, and the diameter of the cornea were measured on 40 eyes of 20 New Zealand White rabbits. Asthe second In addition, the data revealed a general increase in the average AL recorded over time, as more recent studies reported longer AL values than older studies. AL/CRC ratio was not affected by age (r = 0.002, P > 0.05). Global metrics on ocular biometry: representative averages and standard deviations across ten countries from four continents. So in that map effect B is taken into account. This accounts for spherical aberration outside the central zone, and provides information about the imaging power of the cornea. 2017 Mar;45(2):112-119. doi: 10.1111/ceo.12821. Notes on ametropia: a further analysis of Stenstroms data. Analysis of cornea curvature using radial basis functions In particular, we used a breakdown of the world population by continent [18] in 2020 to estimate the proportion of the world population that fell in the following regions: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, and Australia/Oceania (Fig. The kolmogorov-Smirnov Z score of 0.93 (P = 0.35), and Z score of standardized skewness, and standardized kurtosis of 0.81 and 0.25, respectively, show that the values of AL/CRC are normally distributed. Am J Vet Res. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, A reasonableassumptionmightthereforebetoassume k=6-8/7M7. This ignores spherical aberration but is a good approximation for the power of the central cornea. Internet Explorer). Association between stature, ocular biometry and refraction in an adult population in rural Myanmar: the Meiktila eye study. The AL/CRC ratio of myopes was much higher than the other two groups. Corneal Pachymetry: Modalities and Instruments. An inverse relationship was found between axial length and corneal radius of curvature (r = 0.53, P < 0.0001). Combine means and SDs into one group program [Internet]. [13] also reported that eyes with more myopic refractive error tended to have greater axial length. We also compared our aggregate eye dataset with the breakdown of the world population. 16 0 obj A relative or normalized scale adapts to the range of powers on the corneal surface and differs for each cornea. 2023-04-30T21:56:23-07:00 2009 May;86(5):467-75. doi: 10.1097/OPX.0b013e31819fa6f9. Laser scanning was first performed under the lenticule, then lateral cutting, and finally scanning was performed above the lenticule. Algorithms calculate the power of the cornea at each point depending on the deformation of the mires. These values were comparable with 2.98 (SD 0.69) for emmetropes, hyperopes 2.89 (SD 0.87), low myopes, 3.01 (SD 0.07) and 3.10 (SD 0.11) for moderate myopes reported by Yebra-Pimentel et al. Intraocular pressure and related systemic and ocular biometric factors in a population-based study in Japan: the Kumejima study. 4 0 obj Disclaimer. The commonest causes of pseudocones are pellucid marginal degeneration, contact lens-induced irregular astigmatism, and corneal or limbal trauma. There was a significant correlation between the anterior and posterior corneal radius (y = 0.798x + 0.228, r2 = 0.45). A P value of 0.05 was taken as statistically significant. Distribution of ocular biometry in young Chinese eyes: the Anyang University Students Eye Study. However, with increased keratorefractive procedures, the evaluation of paracentral and peripheral cornea is of increased significance. The site is secure. The aim of this study was to investigate the association of axial length (AL)/corneal radius of curvature (CRC) ratio (AL/CRC) with spherical equivalent refractive state (SER) in young adults. This mechanism brings about a greater frequency of emmetropia than is expected on the basis of chance alone. | qSubp'Za\gi Have a question or comment on this article? Careers, Unable to load your collection due to an error. WebDiopters to Radius of Curvature in Millimeters Formula for conversion = 337 Diopters = millimeters Diopters This map uses only values from the anterior surface, but the effect A (see above) is taken into account. At this point, the instrument was switched on and the examiner viewed the mire through the eyepiece while patient was asked to fixate on the reflection of his/her own eye. The total sample size used to calculate metrics for each biometry value ranged between 19,538 and 90,814 eyes. Global weighted averages and standard deviations were calculated using the Cochrane method. The interaction between axial length and corneal radius of curvature (CRC) has played a major role in the compensatory adjustments of the optical components of the eye towards attaining emmetropic state [8]. The mean AL, CRC and AL/CRC ratio of all subjects were 23.74 0.70mm, 7.84 0.19mm, and 3.030.14, respectively. Corneal The categorization of the refractive state of an individual is better done by using the AL/CRC ratio index. We understand that data may vary according to ethnicity, so reporting data by continent has its limitations. Diopter-Radius Conversion | Art Optical The linear regression model is represented by: CRC = 7.853 + 0.069 SER. J Cataract Refractive Surg. Table 2 shows the distribution of axial length according to refractive status. The linear regression model is represented by AL = 23.98 0.081 AGE. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the mean axial length-corneal radius of curvature and axial length-corneal radius of curvature ratio across the refractive status groups. A total of seventy (n = 70) subjects consisting of 31 males and 39 females participated in this study. On the calculation of power from curvature of the cornea WebFind the conversion between diopters and the radius of curvature in eyeglass manufacturing. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. From the equation, for Careers. However, a statistically significant inverse relationship was found between axial length and corneal radius of curvature (r = 0.53, r Curvature maps are usually displayed in one of two formats--axial or tangential--depending upon what method is used to calculate the radius of curvature. The average of both values was recorded as the average corneal curvature (AVK). 2010 Jun;71(6):677-81. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.71.6.677. Large steps decrease sensitivity and mask significant changes due to smoothing of points between rings. Received 2011 Apr 19; Accepted 2011 May 15. the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Br J Ophthalmol. Thus, our analyses further highlight the need to collect and publish routine eye biometry data from the regions that are underrepresented and/or nonexistent in our aggregate eye dataset. PLoS ONE. From the equation it can be predicted that for every 1.00D increase in myopia, the cornea is steepened by approximately 0.07mm. All procedures were approved by the Departmental Research and Ethics Committee (DREC) of the University in accordance with the tenets of Helsinki. As we compared a differential number of studies per biometric parameter, significance was achieved if p<0.05/(number of studies compared per parameter) using the Bonferroni correction. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. Ocular components values and their intercorrelations in Saudi Arabians. Llorente L, Barbero S, Cano D, Dorronsoro C, Marcos S. Myopic versus hyperopic eyes: axial length, corneal shape and optical aberrations. Each light beam is refracted according to the correct refractive index (1.376/1.336), the slope of the surfaces, and the exact location of the refraction. We included studies that reported averages and standard deviations on eye biometry for at least 1300 eyes. 2005;46:445060. The male showed slightly longer axial length than their female counterparts. After that, the map is shifted, so that for a normal eye (posterior radius 82% of anterior radius) the K-values EKR would match the SimK of a Sagittal Map. BMC Ophthalmol. The dioptric power, and the radius of curvature at a particular point, are read by comparing the amount of magnification needed to match the photographed rings to a standard set of rings on the comparator screen. The corneal power is inversely related to the area which can be examined. Although there have been studies in the past decade that detail global ocular metrics, including this study [1] that reported average AL, ACD, and LT for 212,000 eyes stratified by sex, there remains a gap in publishing global averages in conjunction with associated standard deviations for global ocular metrics. Eye. True elevation can only be obtained with technology that employs triangulation. An increase of 1 mm in AL was <>stream Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. curvature Normally a simple formula is used to convert a mm value 8600 Rockville Pike sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal The diameter of the stromal lenticule was 66.5 mm, and the corneal cap diameter was the lenticules diameter plus 1 mm. into Diopter: Dpt=(1.3375-1)*(1000)/Rmm. %PDF-1.4 % Biometry Measurements in IOL Calculation Variations in ocular biometry in an adult Chinese population in Singapore: the Tanjong Pagar survey. [13] reported that eyes with axial elongation tended to have flatter cornea (r = 0.502, P < 0.001). 2 = 0.31%, P = 0.65). ISSN 1476-5454 (online) Studies from Europe are vastly overrepresented compared to the global European population (ratio of individuals in aggregate dataset to world population: 6.57), while studies from North America (ratio of individuals in aggregate dataset to world population: 1.33) and Australia (ratio of individuals in aggregate dataset to world population: 2.51) generally match their respective population percentages. uuid:8a67fa9c-1dd2-11b2-0a00-810000000000 Some modern formulas are able to deal with the true, measured curvatures of the front and back surface of the cornea, however. The axial (sagittal) map is the most common and provides a good estimate of overall corneal shape, which appears smooth with little noise because it provides an average of adjacent curvature values. Rivkah Lender, Devora Mirsky, Hadas Ben-Eli, Hyun Sup Choi, Hyo Soon Yoo, Yong-Kyu Kim, Adam Wylgaa, Bartomiej Bolek, Edward Wylgaa, Miki Kamikawatoko Omoto, Hidemasa Torii, Kazuno Negishi, Jianhong Jiang, Xiaojing Pan, Dongfang Li, Alba Miele, Carlo Fumagalli, Gianni Virgili, Eye The leveling sight pin was at the same level as the outer canthus of the eye to be assessed. Corneal Pachymetry: Modalities and Instruments. The backscattered images are captured by the device's video camera. Braaf B, Dubbelman M, van der Heijde RG, Sicam VA. Optom Vis Sci. WebThe mean radius of curvature (+/-SD) was 6.42 +/- 0.31 mm, with a range from 5.62 to 7.22 mm. Diopters to Radius | Vertex 1999 Jul;83(7):774-8. Yebra-Pimentel E, Giraldez MJ, Glez-Meijome JM, Garcia-Resua C, Parafita MA. WebA circle of radius = 1 or diameter = 2 or circumference = 6.283 mm has an area of: Use the this circle area calculator below to find the area of a circle given its radius, or other Stein Eye Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA, You can also search for this author in Snell law is used to calculate the power. The axial length-corneal radius (AL/CR) ratio has been shown to give a better correlation with refractive error than is obtained with axial length alone [8]. Schuster AK, Pfeiffer N, Nickels S, Schulz A, Hhn R, Wild PS, et al. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. endstream Although the diameter of the cornea of rabbits was bigger than that of humans (average, horizontal 11.75 mm, vertical 10.55 mm), the axial length of the eye was 0.7 times that of humans (23-24 mm), and the radius of corneal curvature was relatively smaller than that in humans (7.7-7.8 mm). However, the difference in mean AL between hyperopes and emmetropes was not significant. So this map takes into account of effect A, B and C. Statistical analysis was performed using Excel. Intuitively, AL/CRC ratio is a better index of categorizing refractive status even in the black race. The APR varies between 1.2581 (R p = 6.2 mm) and 1.0130 (R p = 7.7 mm). Optical measurement of the axial eye length by laser Doppler interferometry. The thickness of the corneal cap was 110 m. 2022 May;52(3):511-525. Select products to compare by checking the boxes next to the items. Evaluation of corneal thickness and topography in normal eyes using the Orbscan corneal topography system. Flitcroft DI, Knight E, Nanan D, Bowell R, Lanigan B, OKeefe M. Intraocular lenses in children: changes in axial length, corneal curvature, and refraction. What is the area of a circle with radius 1 mm? This is in contrast to Scheimpflug systems (Chap. Mean values are reported, with SD in parentheses. 2020. https://www.statstodo.com/CombineMeansSDs_Pgm.php. Thus, we had the following thresholds for significance: ALp<0.00357, CRp<0.004, ACDp<0.0038, WTWp<0.016, LTp<0.00635, and CTp<0.01. The global average and standard deviation values for each eye biometry parameter are reported in Table2. The process operating to produce greater frequency of emmetropia than would be expected on the basis of chance alone is termed emmetropization. 2 = 27.6%, P < 0.0001). Orbscan II incorporated a Placido disc attachment to get curvature measurements directly. Regression line of the correlation of AL/CRC ratio and SER with the 95% confidence interval of the regression line. Ocular determinants of refractive error and its age-and sex-related variations in the Chinese American eye study. The standard keratometry device measures two points at a 2.25-4 mm zone in the central cornea. Accessibility Troilo D. Neonatal eye growth and emmetriopisation-a literature review. The Placido method involves projecting a series of concentric black and white rings onto the cornea and capturing their reflection by a camera placed in the center of the rings. The authors declare no competing interests. On the other hand, Osuobeni [11] found a positive correlation between axial length and corneal curvature. The cornea. Similarly, the difference in mean CRC between males (7.82 0.19mm) and females (7.85 0.19mm) was not statistically significant (t = 0.68, df = 68, P = 0.50). The reported mean and standard deviations for AL, CR, ACD, WTW, LT, and CT were combined and weighted by study sample size using the Cochrane method [2]. The following weighted mean averages were calculated: SE of -0.76D (+9.00D to -13.00D), AL of 23.7mm (18.3mm to 30.4mm), corneal curvature of 7.85mm (7.05mm to 9.48mm) and AL/CR ratio of 3.03 (2.49 to 3.88). Tomoyose E, Higa A, Sakai H, Sawaguchi S, Iwase A, Tomidokoro A, et al. We searched the MEDLINE database via PubMed using the keywords axial length, corneal power, anterior chamber depth, white to white, lens thickness, and corneal thickness, yielding 163 total papers. WebA device used to measure the radius of curvature of the cornea of the eye is called a keratomeler. Ann Clin Lab Sci. The relationship of ocular geometry with refractive error in normal and low birth weight adults. Therefore, a number of limitations exist: the keratometer only measures a small region of the cornea (2 points at the 3-4 mm zone), it measures different regions for corneas of different powers, it does not provide information about the cornea central or peripheral to these points, it assumes the cornea is spherocylindrical and symmetric with a major and minor axis separated by 90 degrees, it ignores spherical aberration, it is susceptible to focusing and misalignment errors, and mire distortion prevents accurate measurement of irregular corneas and cannot be quantified. A handheld open-field infant keratometer (an american ophthalmological society thesis). Although our study does sample from a wide range of geographic locations, it is worth noting that the ethnic breakdown of eyes in our dataset does not match the distribution of the population of different ethnic groups (Table3). Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. 8.71 mm, median 7.65 mm),axis 89.72 38.34 (min. Axial length of the eye (mm) Usually measured using Article Ophthalmology. the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. 1Department of Optometry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria, 2Eye Clinic, Faith Medical Complex, Benin City, Nigeria. Table1 and Fig. Care should be taken, however, when using K-readings from post-LASIK corneas or based on true net power or ray tracing, as these diopter readings are out-of-range for these IOL calculation formulas if not corrected for or converted into equivalent K-readings. 23 0 obj Many devices also contain qualitative classification systems and quantitative indices and algorithms for data interpretation. Before Subjects were categorized into emmetropia, hyperopia and myopia using the spherical equivalent refraction. It is a good approximation for the paracentral cornea (2 mm zone). The healthy central cornea is aspheric and prolate (the central curvature is steeper than the periphery). Corneal Topography - PubMed Tan CS, Chan YH, Wong TY, Gazzard G, Niti M, Ng TP, et al. The linear regression model is represented by: AL = 23.684 0.241 SER. The inverse correlation between axial length and corneal radius of curvature demonstrates the eye's ability to compensate for normal physiologically driven axial length changes. Projecting rings on the corneal surface and measuring the time to break or distortion of the mires can effectively measure the tear film break-up time. The .gov means its official. b Correlation between axial length and temporal ARC [8] (tARC [8]). Computerized videokeratography (CVK) is the most widely used, and therefore the topic of this discussion. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Applications of CVK include: diagnosis of corneal irregularities (ectasias, dystrophies, surface disease, CL warpage, scars, degenerations), screening refractive surgical candidates, evaluating unexplained visual loss, management of surgical patients (planning and monitoring corneal grafts, refractive procedures, cataracts, pterygia, dermoids), and contact lens fitting. 180, median 90) andthe flattest meridian is 7.790.27 mm (min. WebConvert Diopters to mm by using the calculator provided by SpecialEyes Custom Soft Contact Lenses. As a result, the tangential (instantaneous) map is noisy because it is more sensitive to local changes and accentuates focal abnormalities. For historical reasons, most Placido topographers and keratometers use the refractive index of 1.3375 for the refractive power of the cornea. OVER-REFRACTION Fourteen studies were included, originating from Asia (Japan, Singapore, Myanmar, Iran, South Korea, China), Europe (Germany, United Kingdom, Portugal), Australia, and North America (United States). Overall, AL, ACD, and AL/CCR increased, but LP declined from 6 to 14 years of age, whereas CCR and MPOD remained stable. Google Scholar. The anterior radius of curvature was set at 7.8 mm. flattest? volume37,pages 511515 (2023)Cite this article. AL/CRC ratio is a better index for categorizing the refractive status of an individual than axial length alone even among the black race. In: StatPearls [Internet]. and transmitted securely. The values of AL/CRC ratio obtained from this study are 3.16 (SD 0.12) for myopes, 2.95 (SD 0.07) for hyperopes, and emmetropes had 2.96 (SD 0.07), respectively. Clinicians may use our computed values for eye biometry when trying to compare their patients ocular biometrics to global averages. 2.5 D. c. 5 D. d. 10 D. C A +1D lens is decentered by 10mm. The Pentacam measures geometrical Height (elevation) values. WebThe lens has an index nl = 1.413, anterior radius of curvature Rl,1 = 10 mm, a posterior radius of curvature Rl,2 = -6 mm, and thickness tl = 3.6 mm. Difference maps show the change or differences between 2 maps and are used to assess surgical effect or disease progression. The Cataract National Dataset electronic multicentre audit of 55 567 operations: when should IOLMaster biometric measurements be rechecked? From the equation, for every decrease of 0.10mm in corneal radius of curvature (corneal steepening) the axial length is increased by 0.20mm. Tomography is derived from the word "Tomos " (Greek for cut or section) and "graphein" (to write).Is Meaghan Oppenheimer Related To Robert Oppenheimer, Bobby Ong Net Worth, Describe The Character Of Angel In Stand And Deliver, Articles OTHER